中国气象局气象干部培训学院辽宁分院,辽宁 沈阳 110166
Liaoning Branch of China Meteorological Administration Training Centre,Shenyang 110166,China
作者简介 About authors
地表蒸散发是整个生物圈、大气圈和水圈中水分循环和能量传输的重要控制因素。遥感技术的应用使得区域尺度的蒸散发估算成为可能,并在过去的几十年中快速发展。研究对遥感蒸散发估算进行了总结与归纳,在此基础上展望了今后的发展方向,明确指出了遥感蒸散发未来研究的突破点及发展方向。提出未来应加强蒸散发尺度效应、夜间蒸散发、不同蒸散发产品的统一真实性检验、国产卫星数据的使用、更高时空分辨率产品的研发以及机器学习在遥感蒸散发产品中的应用。
关键词:地表蒸散发;遥感;模型
The surface Evapotranspiration (ET) is an important controlling factor to water cycle and energy transmission in the biosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. Satellite provides an unprecedented spatial distribution of ET in the past decades. In this paper,the estimation methods of evapotranspiration using remotely sensed data were summarized,and the existing issues that should be further studied were discussed. In the future research,we should strengthen the improvement of the evapotranspiration regarding scale effect, nighttime ET, the general validation method of different ET products, remotely sensed data in China, the ET products with higher spatial-temporal resolution, and the new ET model using the machine learning methods.
Keywords:Evapotranspiration;Remote sensing;Model
本文引用格式
研究对现有的遥感估算地表蒸散发的诸多方法进行归纳和总结,在此基础上展望今后的发展方向,明确指出遥感蒸散发未来研究的突破点及发展方向。
其中:Rn,d为日净辐射(J/m2/day);LEd为日潜热通量(J/m2/day);Tc,i和Tc,i分别为正午时冠层表面辐射温度和参考高度处的气温(K)。A和B为回归系数。
能量平衡余项法的基本思想是:不考虑平流的影响,能量通量只在垂直一维的方向上进行传输。能量平衡方程为:
根据空气动力学理论,H和LE可表达为:
其中:Taero 为位于温度廓线一定高度(zh)的空气动力学温度(K);Ta 为参考高度温度(冠层上方2 m,K);ρ为空气密度(kg/m3);Cp为空气定压比热(J/kg-1·K-1);e为水汽压亏缺(kPa);γ为干湿计常数(kPa/K);ra 为空气动力学阻力(s/m);rs 为表面水汽扩散阻力(s/m)。ra 可以通过动量传输粗糙长度(z0m )、热量传输粗糙长度(z0h )以及风速和大气稳定度来确定。由于rs 与植被生理特征和环境因子有复杂的关系,难以对其进行量化求解。为避免表面阻抗对于估算LE带来的误差,研究者通常先对H进行估算,再将LE作为能量平衡的剩余项得出,故称此方法为能量平衡余项法。
根据计算H时是否对植被和土壤进行区分,可分为单源模型和双源模型两种。其中,单源模型又称大叶模型,把土壤和植被看成一个系统,不区分土壤和植被对地表水热通量的贡献。单源模型在下垫面均一的地区应用较为广泛,精度较高。在该模型中,核心的问题是空气动力学温度(Taero )的获取。由于空气动力学温度(Taero )很难由遥感技术直接获取,通常用地表辐射温度(Ts )代替。然而,空气动力学温度和地表辐射温度存在明显的差异,尤其是在植被稀疏的干旱半干旱地区。为此,该模型通过引入剩余阻抗或经验公式来调整二者的温差。单源模型的优点是:简单实用、应用很广;缺点是不适合下垫面不均一的情况,需要实地校正;表面阻抗在不均一、水分胁迫时不容易求解。
SEBAL模型中存在两个重要假设:①地气温差dT与地表温度Ts存在线性关系,即dT=a+b•Ts,其中a、b 为经验回归系数;②研究区域中同时存在冷像元和热像元,并且冷热像元的H分别为0和(Rn-G)。
第一个假设引入了dT与Ts的概念,使得求解空气动力学温度与空气温度的差值的复杂问题,变化简化求解地表辐射温度Ts的线性系数问题;第二个假设,引入了两个蒸散发极值情况(冷像元H为0,热像元LE为0),从而将求解出上述线性关系的系数,进而求解出整个区域的H。
模型的输入包括遥感可反演参数和地面观测气象数据,如地表温度、叶面积指数、植被覆盖度、植被高度、地表反照率、风速、湿度和气温等。
SEBS模型的不足之处在于:①kB-1计算中的不确定性以及存在率定的可能性;②计算逐像元干湿限的H需要输入逐像元的气象数据,因此需面临气象数据空间插值可能带来的误差;③对于空气空气动力学粗糙度比较敏感,当地表参数的误差较大时,会产生较大的误差。
总而言之,双层模型更真实地刻画了土壤—植被大气系统水热交换机制,在理论上比单层模型进步,尤其是反演稀疏植被覆盖条件下的水热通量,避免了空气动力学温度和地表辐射温度的差异,更加适合植被稀疏的干旱半干旱地区,其优越性更为显著。然而,双源模型中涉及的阻抗参数和组分温度与植被结构、生理特征、土壤水分等因素有关,其估算的不确定性很高。一种可能的方法是多角度热红外遥感反演组分温度。但目前可用的多角度卫星数据很少,组分温度反演理论和方法也不成熟。因此,在只有单一角度红外观测的情况下,求解双层蒸散模型,并使精度得以提高,需要一种新的方法。
传统的基于微气象理论方法的蒸散发估算具有较为坚实的理论基础,物理概念比较明确,能较好地反映蒸散发的物理机制。通过遥感技术计算微气象理论方法中所需要的净辐射、土壤热通量、阻抗等地表参数,进而计算区域蒸散发,使微气象理论方法计算蒸散发从单点尺度推广到区域尺度,成为近年来研究的重点。
常用的基于微气象理论方法的蒸散发估算方法为:Penman-Monteith(PM)方法和Priestley-Taylor(PT)方法。下面分别介绍这两种方法。
其中:Δ是饱和水汽压与气温曲线的斜率(kPa/K);A是可利用的能量(W/m2);ρ是空气密度(kg/m3);Cp 是空气定压比热(J/kg-1·K-1);e是水汽压亏缺(kPa);γ是干湿计常数(Pa/K);rs 和ra 分别是表面水汽扩散阻力和空气动力学阻力(s/m)。PM公式中的大部分参数都可以由地面气象观测直接获得,或者根据地面观测计算获得。只有表面阻抗和空气动力阻抗需要经过合理的参数化方法来求得。
其中:α为Priestley-Taylor系数;Δ为饱和水汽压与气温关系斜率kPa/K);γ为干湿计常数(Pa/K);A为可利用能量(W/m2)。
其中:E为实际蒸散量,EP为潜在蒸散量,一般指下垫面广阔均一且充分供水时的最大可能蒸散发量;EW为湿润条件下的陆面蒸散量,定义为无平流条件下,净辐射能量保持不变,下垫面供水充分时的蒸散发总量。
互补相关模型的最大优点是简化蒸散机理,只需常规气象观测资料就可以计算旬、月、年的陆面蒸散量;缺点是:①由于模型没有考虑空气与外界的能量和物质交换,认为释放的能量只用来进行蒸散,也忽略了大气平流层和大尺度天气系统的影响。真实农田的异质性和不连续性给模型带来了较大的误差。②迄今为止,互补关系原理中潜在蒸散发和实际蒸散发增量绝对值相等尚未得到证明,同时由于湿润环境蒸发和非饱和面潜在蒸发有多种定义,致使基于该原理的蒸散发模型估算结果会有较大的差别。
这种方法的优点是:①只需要常规气象数据即可反演地表通量;②不需要空气动力学阻抗的计算;③不需要绝对的温度反演精度和大气校正;④直接计算出蒸发比:只需要计算出能量比值,而不需要能量平衡算法;⑤估算出的蒸发比和净辐射,是相对独立的,因此总体误差可以追溯到蒸散发和净辐射。缺点在于:①干湿点选取的主观性;②研究区域应该存在土壤水分不同的植被、裸土情况;③假设研究区域的大气条件均一,因此不适用于大区域的蒸散发估算。
数据同化技术具有如下优点:①同化过程不仅估算了潜热通量,而且可以输出与显热和潜热有关的中间变量;②能够得到更高分辨率、具有物理一致性和时空一致性的感热通量和潜热通量;③能够充分利用不同时空分辨率和误差精度的多源信息;④不仅可以估算出当前的蒸散发,同时可以预测未来的蒸散发,并给出预报的精度信息。不足之处在于:①数据同化系统中不同数据源的不确定性与误差估计是亟需解决的重中之重的问题;②同化系统中同化什么观测量,需要一定的经验或者尝试;③模型复杂,计算量大。
对于封闭的流域,水量平衡公式为:
基于GRACE的水量平衡方法的优点在于:方法简单,计算量小,适合大范围、大流域尺度甚至全球尺度的蒸散发估算;不足之处在于:无法用于较小区域的蒸散发估算,同时由于降水数据的不确定性较高,导致最终计算的蒸散发不确定性较大。
开展遥感反演瞬时地表蒸散发的日尺度扩展,其核心即为利用一天中有限卫星过境时刻获得的瞬时蒸散发估算出日蒸散发。扩展因子法,即寻找一个与蒸散发密切相关的变量Y,来构建日尺度扩展因子(即卫星过境时刻瞬时蒸散发与变量Y之比),并假定卫星过境时刻的日尺度扩展因子在一天内保持相对稳定,进而将瞬时蒸散发扩展至日蒸散发。扩展因子法可以表示为:
其中:下标“i”和“d”分别代表瞬时尺度与日尺度;Y为与蒸散发变化过程密切相关的变量。当Y为地表可利用能量时,上述方法即为常用的蒸发比不变法;当Y为参考蒸散发时,上述方法即为常用的参考蒸发比不变法。
表1典型的蒸散发产品
Table 1 Typical remotely sensed evapotranspiration products
0.01̊/0.5̊
8 d
5 km/1 km
8 d
0.25̊
日/月/年
500 m/1 km
8 d
0.08̊/0.5̊
0.08̊/0.5̊
8 d/d
2002-2015
1980-2019
0.08̊/1̊
500 m
8 d
zh-hans/data/
1 km
8 d/月
gov/ssebop/modis
SEBAL/SEBS
PM公式
30 m/1 km
月/年
Shuttleworth-
Wallace公式
250 m/1 km
日/月/年
0.5̊/1̊
70 m
1-5 d
0.1̊
3 km
h/d
100 m
在无像元或区域尺度相对真值时可采用间接检验法。间接检验法又可细分为交叉检验法、基于高分辨率遥感数据的多尺度逐级检验法和时空变化趋势分析检验法。交叉检验法主要用于有已检地表蒸散发产品或3种及以上地表蒸散发产品但无地表蒸散发观测的情况;基于高分辨率遥感数据的多尺度逐级检验法需要结合不同空间分辨率的卫星遥感信息以及地表蒸散发观测数据等,并且涉及不同分辨率地表蒸散发遥感估算值的尺度效应等问题;时空变化趋势分析检验法可适用于上述检验方法都无法实施的情况。该方法检验地表蒸散发遥感产品时空变化趋势与地表蒸散发影响因子(如植被状况、气象条件、土壤水分等)的时空变化趋势是否一致,但无法定量给出待检产品的准确度。
(2)真实性检验。尽管产品在发布前已经进行了检验,但不同的研究者们基于不同验证数据和方法给出的验证结论存在差异,且这些验证结果在多大程度上代表了遥感产品的真实准确度依然存在疑问。同时,缺少对遥感产品误差来源与验证过程中不确定性的分析。总之,目前遥感估算地表蒸散发真实性检验还缺少一个相对完善的理论框架和技术流程以及对多种遥感估算地表蒸散发产品的实证研究。
综合国内外研究进展,本文对遥感估算蒸散发研究作出如下展望:
(2)夜间蒸散发。寻找适用于全天的扩展因子,建立能够直接考虑到夜间蒸散发贡献的新方法;或者基于植物茎干液流计、蒸渗仪、同位素仪等观测技术,分析夜间蒸散发与环境因子之间的关系,构建夜间蒸散发估算模型。
(4)国产卫星数据的使用。尽管中国发射了众多的卫星,但是中国遥感学人更多使用的是国外的卫星数据。因此,未来应该加强对国产卫星数据低级(low-level)产品的质量改进,高级产品的研发,加强以用户导向的数据发布与共享。
(5)更高时空分辨率的产品的研发。随着一系列新型传感器的开发,尤其是多角度热红外和微波遥感的推广,为蒸散发模型提供了更多的信息源,可以避免单一的遥感数据源存在信息量不足等一系列问题,通过融合多种蒸散估算方法,利用数据的互补和数据协同优势,可以充分发挥各个模型的优势,提高蒸散估算的精度。
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数据同化—一种集成多源地理空间数据的新思路
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数据同化算法研究现状综述
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遥感反演蒸散发的日尺度扩展方法研究进展
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Validation of remotely sensed evapotranspiration over the Hai River Basin, China
Advances in validation of remotely sensed land surface evapotranspiration
遥感估算地表蒸散发真实性检验研究进展
Global estimates of evapotranspiration for climate studies using multisensor remote sensing data: Evaluation of three process-based approaches
Evaluation the evapotranspiration in the West Liaohe River Basin based on GRACE satellite and in situ measurements
联合GRACE重力卫星与实测资料估计西辽河流域蒸散发量
Evaluation of global observations-based evapotranspiration datasets and IPCC AR4 simulations
The WACMOS-ET project-Part 2: Evaluation of global terrestrial evaporation data sets
Evaluation of twelve evapotranspiration products from machine learning, remote sensing and land surface models over conterminous United States
Multi-scale evaluation of global gross primary productivity and evapotranspiration products derived from Breathing Earth System Simulator(BESS)
Recent decline in the global land evapotranspiration trend due to limited moisture supply
Coupled estimation of 500 m and 8-day resolution global evapotranspiration and gross primary production in 2002~2017
Operational evapotranspiration mapping using remote sensing and weather datasets: A new parameterization for the SSEB approach
ETWatch for monitoring regional evapotranspiration with remote sensing
基于遥感的区域蒸散量监测方法—ETWatch
Development of a 10-year (2001-2010) 0.1° data set of land-surface energy balance for mainland China
Evapotranspiration modelling at large scale using near-real time MSG SEVIRI derived data
Estimation of daily evapotranspiration and irrigation water efficiency at a Landsat-like scale for an arid irrigation area using multi-source remote sensing data
Dependence of remote sensing evapotranspiration algorithm on spatial resolution
Remote sensing research of evapotranspiration over heterogeneous surfaces: A review
非均匀地表蒸散遥感研究综述
Differential daytime and night-time stomatal behavior in plants from North American deserts
Formulation of scale transformation in a stochastic data assimilation framework
Physics-constrained machine learning of evapotranspiration
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由于地表空间异质性和近地层气象条件的复杂性,利用遥感技术估算地表蒸散发仍存在模型机理与变量参数化方案、输入数据以及时间尺度扩展等多方面的制约因子[85-86],且地表蒸散发遥感产品在生产过程中还需引入较多假设和先验知识,计算结果不可避免地存在不确定性.因此,为了提升蒸散发产品在模型开发,全球气候变化和水资源管理中的可应用性,目前围绕全球/区域蒸散发产品的综合评估即真实性检验方面开展了诸多研究. ...